Many animals used for agricultural purposes, including cattle, water buffalo, pigs, sheep, goats, and horses, live in herds. Other less common agricultural animals, such as donkeys, also live in herds. Each of these types of animals has a suite of species-specific behaviors. This section will review herd behaviors and moving herd animals at a high level that is not specific to any of these groups of animals.
Prey species live in herds for social protection from predators. Compared with living solitarily, living within large social groups provides protection from predators through safety of numbers, dilution of risk, and increased vigilance.
During normal grazing and resting periods, many social groups have fission-fusion societies, in which the distance between animals changes dynamically throughout the day while animals alternate between grazing and resting. When faced with a threat, however, groups of animals consolidate and move as an organized group (a herd or flock).
How livestock perceive their environment should be considered when handling them, and appropriate facilities should be designed for low-stress handling.
Both pigs and cattle have a field of vision > 300°, with a blind spot directly behind them. Sheep also have a wide range of vision, up to 305°, which varies by the amount of wool around their heads obscuring their vision.
Depth perception for livestock is also different from that of humans, and animals will lower their heads to investigate objects on the floor or changes in flooring gradients.
When animals are being moved through handling facilities, attempts should be made to limit distractions outside and within the handling areas. For example, chutes should have solid walls to limit distractions outside the chute, such as moving people and objects.
Animals often notice changes in flooring, such as drains, grates, puddles, shadows, and differences in flooring texture. Any change in flooring or objects on the floor might cause animals to stop moving to investigate the change or refuse to walk over it. Maintaining consistent lighting (or increasing the lighting from dim to well lit) and decreasing visual distractions will facilitate the handling of animals and decrease their stress during handling.
The pressure zone, flight zone, and point of balance are key to moving animals with low-stress handling (see handling zones image):
The pressure zone (or awareness zone) is outside of the flight zone. When a person enters an animal’s pressure zone, the animal will turn to face the handler but might not move away.
The flight zone is the animal’s personal space within the pressure zone. When a person enters an animal’s flight zone, the animal will move away from the person.
Working the flight zone at a respectful distance from the animal can aid in low-stress movement of animals, whereas moving too quickly or too far into the flight zone can cause animals to panic and run away or run toward the handler to flee the interaction. Instead, the handler should maintain an appropriate distance from animals to keep them moving at a consistent, normal pace.
The size of the flight zone varies by species, breed, genetics, comfort with humans, and other factors. For example, dairy cattle that are moved to milking parlors multiple times per day generally have smaller flight zones than do beef cattle, which are often extensively managed and infrequently handled by humans. Further, animals that experience positive interactions with humans often have smaller flight zones than do animals that have negative interactions with humans.
The point of balance is an imaginary line, stretching roughly between the animal's shoulders on each side, where the handlers’ position influences the direction of movement. Generally, standing behind the point of balance (behind the shoulder) will cause animals to move forward, standing in front of the point of balance will cause them to turn and move in the opposite direction, and standing at the point of balance will cause them to stand still or stop.
When moving animals in a chute, the handler can encourage them to move forward by walking quickly past the point of balance (from head to tail).
Cattle cannot see directly behind them, and the space where they cannot see is referred to as the blind spot. If a person enters the blind spot while moving cattle, the cattle may stop moving or turn around to look at the person standing behind them.
Courtesy of Dr. Kate Creutzinger.
Avoiding Stressors During Handling of Herd Animals
Animals' emotional and mental states in response to handling are greatly influenced by their previous experiences during handling. Many species, including cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and horses, have long-term memories of individuals and avoid cues associated with negative handling experiences, such as hitting and shouting. In addition, loud noises, such as yelling, shouting, and hitting bars, are aversive to livestock and frequently induce stress responses.
Furthermore, isolation is stressful for herd animals. When an animal is being removed from the herd, another animal should be moved with it to keep them together as a pair. Isolation of single animals should be avoided when possible. If an animal must be isolated, the duration of isolation should be as short as possible.
Another major source of stress that should be avoided when moving animals is the use of electric prods. Electric prods, sometimes referred to as "cattle prods" or "hot shots," are handheld devices that deliver an electric shock when they come into contact with a solid surface. They are sometimes used on animals to encourage movement. However, electric prod use is stressful for animals and can make handling more difficult.
Instead of using an electric prod, handlers should be trained in low-stress handling techniques that work with the animal's natural behaviors, instead of against them, and the facilities should be well designed for animals and clear of distractions.
Opportunities for Positive Welfare of Herd Animals
One way of moving animals from one area to another is to offer a feed reward. Many farms use feed as a motivator to lead animals into a new space, so that they do not need to be driven by handlers but instead go where they know feed will be available.
Animals can also be trained to accept handling willingly. For example, pigs and dairy cattle have been trained to willingly submit to blood collection and injections via positive reinforcement with a feed reward and habituation to both the handling facilities and human handlers.
Key Points
Calmer animals are easier to move than agitated ones.
When they are being handled, animals will indicate what they need. Handlers should pay attention to animals' body language and other responses (eg, urination, defecation, and vocalizations) to meet these needs.
Major stressors during handling, such as using an electric prod, shouting, hitting metal bars, and isolating animals, should be avoided.
Moving animals is most effective when facilities are designed to fit the animals' perspectives and work with their natural behaviors.
During handling there are opportunities for positive welfare (offering animals the opportunity for rewarding experiences), such as positive human-animal interactions, positive reinforcement, and elective participation in handling.
For More Information
Dr. Temple Grandin's Website: Recommended Basic Livestock Handling
Grandin T, ed. Livestock Handling and Transport. 6th ed. CABI Books; 2024.
Van Os J. The Importance of Cow Handling and a Revolutionary Way to Practice. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Division of Extension; 2023-24.
