Therapies for cardiovascular diseases in animals are species-, severity-, and disease-specific, but the goals of treatment in all cases are the following:
Target and stabilize the underlying disease process if possible
Mitigate clinical signs to improve quality of life and survival time
Promote excretion of excess fluid (pulmonary edema, pleural effusion, subcutaneous edema, ascites)
Regulate heart rate and rhythm
Improve oxygenation
Minimize risk of adverse events and recurrence of clinical signs
The ultimate goals of therapy for cardiovascular disease are achieved when treatment resolves the presenting clinical signs, the respiratory and heart rates are not increased at rest, and quality of life is good for both pet and owner. Therapy for cardiovascular disease may include management with medications, interventional or surgical procedures, exercise and diet modifications, or a combination of these therapies.
See also Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Cardiovascular System in Animals.
Therapeutic Agents
Numerous classes of cardiac medications are available to treat dogs and cats. (See the table Cardiac Medications of Dogs and Cats.)
Cardiac Medications of Dogs and Cats
Drug | Species | Route and Dosage |
|---|---|---|
Diuretics | ||
Furosemide | Dog | Acute treatment: 2–4 mg/kg, IV or IM, q 1–6 h (initially q 1–2 h, then q 4–8 h) or 0.25–1 mg/kg/h, IV CRI Long-term management: 1–6 mg/kg, PO, q 8–12 h; maximal total dose of 12 mg/kg q 24 h. Typical starting dose: 2 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h |
Cat | Acute treatment: 0.5–2 mg/kg, IV or IM, q 1–8 h (initially q 2 h, then q 6–8 h) or 0.25–0.6 mg/kg/h, IV CRI Long-term management: 1–2 mg/kg, PO, q 12–24 h; maximal total dose of 6 mg/kg q 24 h | |
Torsemide | Dog | 0.1–0.4 mg/kg, PO, q 12–24 h |
Cat | 0.05–0.25 mg/kg, q 12-24 h or 1.25 mg/cat, PO, q 12–24 h | |
Spironolactone | Dog | 1–2 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h or 2–4 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h |
Hydrochlorothiazide | Dog | 1–4 mg/kg, PO, q 12–24 h |
Cat | 0.5–2 mg/kg, PO, q 12–24 h | |
Acetazolamide | Dog | 4–7 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h |
Positive Inotropes | ||
Pimobendan | Dog | 0.25–0.3 mg/kg, PO, q 8–12 h; 0.15 mg/kg, IV, single dose (extralabel) 0.5 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h for delay of CHF due to stage 2 MMVD |
Cat | 0.25 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h (extralabel) Usually 1.25 mg/cat, PO, q 12 h | |
Digoxin | Dog | 0.0025–0.005 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h (do not exceed 0.25 mg/dog, PO, q 12 h) |
Cat | For cats < 3 kg: 0.01 mg/kg, PO, q 48 h; for cats 3–6 kg: ¼ of 0.125 mg tablet, PO, q 24–48 h; for cats > 6 kg: ¼ of 0.125 mg tablet, PO, q 12–24 h | |
Dobutamine | Dog | 1–15 mcg/kg/min, IV CRI |
Cat | 0.5–5 mcg/kg/min, IV CRI | |
ACE Inhibitors | ||
Enalapril | Dog, cat | 0.25–0.5 mg/kg, PO, q 12–24 h |
Benazepril | Dog | 0.25–0.5 mg/kg, PO, q 12–24 h |
Cat | 0.25–0.5 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h or 0.5 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h | |
Benazepril/spironolactone | Dog | Chewable tablets: 2.5 mg benazepril/20 mg spironolactone (5/40, 10/80) by weight per label |
0.25 mg/kg benazepril and 2 mg/kg spironolactone, PO, q 24 h | ||
Ramipril | Dog | 0.125–0.25 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h |
Lisinopril | Dog | 0.5 mg/kg, PO, q 12–24 h |
Cat | 2.5 mg/cat, PO, q 24 h | |
ARBs | ||
Telmisartan | Dog | 1–2 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h |
Cat | 1.5 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h for 14 days, then 2 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h | |
Vasodilators | ||
Nitroglycerin 2% | Dog, cat | 6.3 mm (0.25 in) paste/5–10 kg, applied with gloves to unhaired inside of pinna, q 8 h for first 24 h |
Nitroprusside sodium | Dog | Initial dose 1 mcg/kg/min, IV CRI; then titrate to effect q 15–30 min up to maximal dose of 10–15 mcg/kg/min; continue for up to 24–48 h. Do not bolus. |
Cat | Initial dose 1 mcg/kg/min, IV CRI; then titrate up to 3 mcg/kg/min if needed | |
Hydralazine | Dog | Initial dose 0.5 mg/kg, PO, once; then titrate up to 1–3 mg/kg q 12 h |
Cat | Initial dose 0.2–0.5 mg/cat, SC; repeat after 15 min if needed | |
Amlodipine | Dog | 0.1–0.2 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h or 0.2–0.4 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h |
Cat | Acute treatment: 0.125–0.25 mg/kg, PO; then titrate to a maximum dose of 0.6 mg/kg (2.5 mg/cat), PO, q 24 h Long-term management: 0.125 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h; increase slowly (weekly) up to 0.5 mg/kg | |
Sildenafil | Dog, cat | 1–3 mg/kg, PO, q 8 h |
Tadalafil | Dog | 1–2 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h (extralabel) |
Antiarrhythmics | ||
Magnesium chloride | Dog | 0.15–0.3 mEq/kg, slow IV, over 5–15 min |
Sodium channel blockers (Class I) | ||
Lidocaine | Dog | Loading dose 2 mg/kg, IV, over 30 sec–2 min (maximal cumulative dose of 8 mg/kg over 30 min); then 25–80 mcg/kg/min, IV CRI |
Cat | Loading dose 0.1–0.4 mg/kg, IV, over 1 min (maximum 3 doses over 5–20 min); then 10–20 mcg/kg/min, IV CRI, if effective. Lower dose recommended due to cats' sensitivity to potential CNS effects. | |
Procainamide | Dog | Loading dose 2 mg/kg, IV, over 5 min; then titrate up to maximum dose of 20 mg/kg over 10–15 min, then 25–40 mcg/kg/min, IV CRI, or 10–20 mg/kg, IM or SC, q 4–6 h Maintenance dose: Immediate-acting formulation: 4–6 mg/kg, PO, q 2–4 h Sustained-release formulation: 10–20 mg/kg, PO, q 8 h |
Mexiletine | Dog | 4–8 mg/kg, PO, q 8 h |
Beta-blockers (Class II) | Start low and titrate up | |
Atenolol | Dog | 0.2–1.5 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h |
Cat | 1–2.5 mg/kg (6.25–12.5 mg/cat/dose), PO, q 12 h | |
Esmolol | Dog, cat | 0.1–0.5 mg/kg, slow IV bolus over 2–5 min; then 10–200 mcg/kg/min, CRI, if needed |
Propranolol | Dog | 0.2–1.5 mg/kg, PO, q 8 h |
Cat | 0.4–1.2 mg/kg (2.5–5 mg/cat/dose), PO, q 8 h | |
Metoprolol | Dog | 0.4–1.0 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h; start at 0.2 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h with slow uptitration |
Carvedilol | Dog | 0.2–0.4 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h; then titrate q 2 wk up to 1.5 mg/kg q 12 h |
Cat | 1.6–3.125 mg/cat, PO, q 12 h | |
Potassium channel blockers (Class III) | ||
Sotalol | Dog, cat | 1–3.5 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h |
Amiodarone | Dog | Loading dose 8–10 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h for 7–10 days; maintenance dose 5–10 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h 2–5 mg/kg, IV infusion over 30–60 min; then 0.8 mg/kg/h, IV CRI for 6 h, then 0.5 mg/kg/h, IV CRI |
Calcium channel blockers (Class IV) | ||
Diltiazem (immediate acting) | Dog, cat | 0.05–0.1 mg/kg, IV bolus over 5 min; additional boluses as needed q 15 min up to 0.05 mg/kg cumulative dose |
Dog | 0.5–3 mg/kg, PO, q 8 h | |
Cat | 1.5–3 mg/kg (7.5–15 mg/cat/dose), PO, q 8–12 h | |
Diltiazem extended-release | Dog | 2–4 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h |
Cat | 7.5 mg/cat, PO, q 8 h Extended release: 30–60 mg/cat, PO, q 12–24 h | |
Vagolytics | ||
Atropine | Dog, cat | 0.02–0.04 mg/kg, IV, IM, or SC, to effect |
Glycopyrrolate | Dog, cat | 0.005–0.01 mg/kg, IV, IM, or SC, to effect |
Anticholinergics | ||
Hyoscyamine | Dog | 0.003–0.006 mg/kg, PO, q 8–12 h |
Propantheline | Dog | 0.5–1.5 mg/kg (7.5–30 mg/dog/dose), PO, q 8 hr |
Antitussives | ||
Hydrocodone | Dog | 0.2–1 mg/kg, PO, q 6–12 h (or as needed) |
Butorphanol | Dog | 0.55–1.1 mg/kg, PO, q 6–12 h |
Maropitant | Dog | 2 mg/kg, PO, q 48 h |
Diphenoxylate/atropine | Dog | 0.2–0.5 mg/kg, PO, q 6–12 h |
Antithrombotics | ||
Aspirin | Dog | 2–10 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h |
Cat | Not recommended as sole antithrombotic, as clopidogrel is superior in preventing feline arterial thromboembolism; 1–2 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h or ¼ of 81-mg tablet/cat, PO, q 3 days | |
Clopidogrel | Dog | 1–4 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h |
Cat | Loading dose 37.5–75 mg/cat, PO, once; maintenance dose 18.75 mg/cat, PO, q 24 h | |
Enoxaparin | Dog | 0.8 mg/kg, SC, q 6 h |
Cat | 0.75–1 mg/kg, SC, q 6–12 h | |
Dalteparin | Dog | 100–175 IU/kg, SC, q 8 h |
Cat | 75–150 IU/kg, SC, q 6 h or 100–200 IU/kg, SC, q 12 h | |
Rivaroxaban | Dog | 1–2 mg/kg, PO, q 12–24 h |
Cat | 0.5–1 mg/kg (1.25–2.5 mg/cat), PO, q 12–24 h | |
Apixaban | Dog | 0.25–0.5 mg/kg, PO, q 8–12 h (q 8 h for 3–7 days in dogs with active thrombosis; maintenance dose: q 12 h); decrease if renal disease |
Cat | For cats < 5 kg: 0.625 mg/cat, PO, q 12 h For cats ≥ 5 kg: 1.25 mg/cat, PO, q 12 h | |
Amino Acids | ||
L-carnitine | Dog | 1,000–3,000 mg/dog, PO, q 12 h Note: must be L-carnitine and not R-carnitine |
Taurine | Dog | Small dog: 250–500 mg, PO, q 12 h; medium-sized dog: 500 mg, PO, q 12 h; large-breed dog: 500–1,000 mg, PO, q 12 h (no weights are included to clarify) |
Cat | 250–500 mg/cat, PO, q 12 h | |
Heartworm Treatments | ||
Doxycycline | Dog | 10 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h for 28 d |
Melarsomine | Dog | 2.5 mg/kg, deep IM injection into epaxial lumbar muscle belly (between L3 and L5); total of 3 injections (days 60, 90, and 91) |
Prednisone | Dog | 1st wk: 0.5 mg/kg, q 12 h 2nd wk: 0.5 mg/kg, q 24 h 3rd & 4th wk: 0.5 mg/kg every other day following each melarsomine injection, or sooner in patients with clinical signs |
Macrocyclic lactones: ivermectin, moxidectin, milbemycin, selamectin | Dog | PO, topical, and parenteral formulations; dosed year-round based on body weight per manufacturer's instructions and American Heartworm Society guidelines |
DRUGS NO LONGER ROUTINELY USED | ||
Amiloride, amrinone, milrinone (except postoperatively in canine cardiac surgery), quinidine (except to convert equine atrial fibrillation), triamterene, warfarin | ||
Abbreviations: ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; CHF, congestive heart failure; MMVD, myxomatous mitral valve disease. | ||
Diuretics are drugs that promote diuresis, resulting in increased urine production, and they are the mainstay for treatment of congestive heart failure (CHF) in animals. Loop diuretics decrease resorption of sodium, chloride, and potassium in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle by inhibiting the Na+-K+-2Cl− transporter. Loop diuretics (eg, furosemide, torsemide) are the most important and effective means to remove edema from animals with CHF and frequently are lifesaving in the short term.
Furosemide is the most commonly used first-line loop diuretic to treat CHF in animals. It is also a venodilator when used IV. In select cases with advanced or refractory heart failure, diuresis can be enhanced with the addition of other diuretics to block different segments of the nephron (sequential nephron blockade) or via transition to a more potent loop diuretic, such as torsemide. Torsemide, a loop diuretic that is 10–20 times more potent than furosemide, is typically used for refractory CHF or in cases of suspected diuretic resistance to furosemide.
Thiazide diuretics (eg, hydrochlorothiazide) are used less frequently than loop diuretics in veterinary medicine. Thiazide diuretics suppress resorption of sodium and water at the distal renal tubules. Using a loop diuretic and a diuretic that works at the distal tubules dramatically decreases the kidneys' ability to conserve water; therefore, dehydration and hypokalemia can develop. This may be signaled by worsening azotemia, and renal values must be monitored closely in animals on multiple diuretics.
Spironolactone is a potassium-sparing diuretic that blocks the effects of aldosterone. Like thiazides, spironolactone exerts its effect principally at the distal convoluted tubule. Although spironolactone effectively maintains potassium levels, data suggest that it does not induce a notable diuretic effect. However, spironolactone minimizes remodeling of both blood vessels and the heart, and, like angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and beta-blockers, it has been shown to both decrease symptoms and prolong the lives of humans and perhaps dogs with heart failure. In ACVIM consensus statement guidelines for the classification, diagnosis, and management of cardiomyopathies in cats, spironolactone (1–2 mg/kg, PO, every 12–14 hours) can be considered in cats with chronic stage D CHF. Adverse reactions such as facial excoriations and ulcerative dermatitis have been reported in cats receiving spironolactone at a dose of 2 mg/kg, PO, every 12 hours; thus a risk-benefit analysis should be considered.
A combination of spironolactone and hydrochlorothiazide (1:1 ratio dosage forms) may be used in cases of refractory CHF. Renal values should be monitored closely because of the risk of worsening azotemia and renal failure with spironolactone/hydrochlorothiazide therapy.
Pimobendan, a calcium-sensitizing agent and phosphodiesterase-III inhibitor, is an inodilator (ie, both a positive inotrope and a vasodilator). Pimobendan has been shown to improve the quality of life of dogs with CHF, delay the onset of CHF in preclinical dogs with degenerative mitral valve disease (based on the EPIC study), and improve survival in dogs with CHF. A dobutamine (beta-1-adrenergic agonist) CRI may be indicated for positive inotropic support in patients hospitalized with CHF secondary to DCM or if severe systolic dysfunction is present.
Pimobendan is not approved for use in cats but appears to be well-tolerated and may be beneficial in cats with heart failure that do not have evidence of substantial left ventricular outflow tract obstruction.
Enalapril, benazepril, lisinopril, and ramipril are angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors commonly used in heart failure management in dogs. All are equally effective at blocking the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II. They minimize remodeling of blood vessels and the myocardium and are part of the mainstay treatment regimen for advanced cardiac disease and heart failure.
Pimobendan and ACE inhibitors have proved safe and effective to treat dogs with heart failure. Furosemide and digoxin are approved but without data proving either safety or efficacy. Use of other agents to manage heart failure or rhythm disturbances is based on anecdotal evidence or unblinded, uncontrolled reports and clinical experience.
Antitussive medications may be prescribed to dogs for coughing (dry, nonproductive cough, similar to the honking cough associated with tracheal collapse) secondary to mainstem bronchial compression from severe left atrial enlargement. Prior to prescribing antitussive medications such as hydrocodone (schedule II controlled substance) and butorphanol (schedule IV controlled substance), veterinarians should perform thoracic radiographs to rule out the presence of pulmonary edema (secondary to CHF) before suppressing the patient's cough. Alternative cough medications include maropitant (neurokinin-1 receptor antagonist) and diphenoxylate/atropine (opioid agonist/anticholinergic, schedule V) (1).
Sildenafil is a potent phosphodiesterase-V inhibitor used to treat moderate to severe pulmonary hypertension in dogs. By inducing pulmonary arterial vasodilation, sildenafil has been shown to improve exercise intolerance and quality of life in humans and dogs with pulmonary hypertension. Sildenafil may also provide additional beneficial effects on vascular remodeling and cardiac function.
Tadalafil is another phosphodiesterase type V inhibitor that may be an alternative for treatment in dogs with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Tadalafil is longer acting (dosage is every 24 hours); however, long-term data on clinical patients are lacking.
Nitroglycerin is a venodilator usually applied in a paste form to the skin inside the pinna or to the mucous membranes; venodilation causes blood to pool in the dilated peripheral veins and splanchnic organs, decreasing left ventricular preload and pulmonary edema. Sodium nitroprusside is another nitrate that is a veno- and arterial dilator. Nitroprusside can be administered IV to treat acute fulminant CHF. These two medications should never be given simultaneously or concurrently with sildenafil because life-threatening hypotension may result.
Pearls & Pitfalls
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Both procainamide and quinidine, class IA antiarrhythmics formerly used to manage ventricular arrhythmias, have been superseded by the class III antiarrhythmics sotalol and amiodarone and by the class IB antiarrhythmic mexiletine for treatment of malignant ventricular arrhythmias. Due to its unique metabolism in dogs, procainamide has a very short duration of activity and must be administered every few hours to achieve an effect; however, it is effective for emergent stabilization of malignant ventricular arrhythmias (that do not respond to lidocaine) when given as a CRI in hospitalized patients.
Sotalol is used to treat both supraventricular and ventricular tachyarrhythmias, and it is particularly effective, either alone or in combination with mexiletine, in treatment of Boxers with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia. Amiodarone is useful to manage all forms of arrhythmias, including ventricular arrhythmias, and rate control or conversion of atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. Be mindful of theoretical serious adverse drug interactions (based on human literature) when prescribing this medication and use a drug interaction checker.Hepatotoxicity and thyroid dysfunction are potential adverse effects of amiodarone; thus, liver enzymes, serum amiodarone levels, and thyroid levels should be monitored periodically throughout therapy.
Lidocaine, a class IB antiarrhythmic, is administered only IV for emergency ventricular arrhythmias, such as sustained ventricular tachycardia or R-on-T morphology. Cats are extremely sensitive to the CNS effects of lidocaine, so lower doses and cautious administration are essential. Lidocaine can be administered to horses or ruminants for ventricular arrhythmias.
Atenolol, propranolol, and metoprolol are oral beta-blockers, and esmolol is an IV beta-blocker. These drugs slow the heart rate, suppress arrhythmias, and upregulate adrenergic receptors.
Carvedilol is a beta- and alpha-adrenergic blocker that also scavenges reactive oxygen species. Like ACE inhibitors and spironolactone, carvedilol has been shown to both prolong life and decrease symptoms in humans with heart failure; however, beta-blockers are not generally advised for use in animals with active CHF due to their negative inotropic effects. Beta-blockers are often used to treat dogs with subaortic or pulmonic stenosis and for dynamic outflow obstruction in cats with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy.
Diltiazem is a calcium channel blocker (class IV antiarrhythmic drug) used to slow the ventricular rate in animals with atrial fibrillation or supraventricular tachycardia by slowing AV nodal conduction. Diltiazem is often used concurrently with digoxin when monotherapy does not sufficiently control the heart rate in dogs with atrial fibrillation and a fast ventricular response rate. Diltiazem is available in 3 main formulations: IV, oral immediate-release, and oral extended- or delayed-release. The immediate-release formulated is administered every 8 hours, and the extended-release is given every 12 hours. Extended-release capsules (240 mg) are formulated for humans, and clients should be instructed to open the capsule, which contains four 60-mg tablets. With the exception of giant breeds, most dogs will receive only a portion of the tablets within the capsule. This is important to note because this medication has the potential to be inadvertently overdosed.
Digitalis glycosides are Na+,K+-ATPase inhibitors. This inhibition increases intracellular sodium, which activates the sodium-calcium pump that increases intracellular calcium. Digoxin increases the force of myocardial contraction (to a minor degree), slows the heart rate, and improves baroreceptor function. Digoxin has a narrow therapeutic index; thus, serum levels should be monitored (and kept in the lower end of the therapeutic range), and patients should be monitored closely for clinical signs of toxicosis (vomiting, diarrhea, inappetence, arrhythmogenesis).
Atropine and glycopyrrolate are IV anticholinergic drugs that block the effects of the vagus nerve on the SA node. Because the vagus nerve slows discharge of the SA node and heart rate, these compounds speed heart rate and may be useful when the heart beats too slowly, such as with AV block, sick sinus syndrome, or bradycardia under anesthesia. Oral medications that act similarly include propantheline and hyoscyamine and are used with some success to medically manage dogs with sinus nodal dysfunction/sick sinus syndrome and second-degree AV block.
Aspirin, clopidogrel, dalteparin, and enoxaparin are antithrombotics that may prevent thromboembolism in cats with cardiomyopathy. Clopidogrel was found to be superior to aspirin monotherapy in preventing arterial thromboembolism in cats based on the FAT CAT study (2). Thus, it is not recommended to prescribe solely aspirin for this purpose. Rivaroxaban and apixaban are oral factor Xa inhibitors that may prove useful for thromboprophylaxis in cats and dogs, although further studies are needed to evaluate their dosing and safety.
Taurine and l-carnitine are amino acids used to prevent and treat nutritional dilated cardiomyopathy in cats and dogs with these deficiencies.
Heartworm treatments include melarsomine to kill mature heartworms and ivermectin, moxidectin, milbemycin, and selamectin as preventatives to kill L3 and L4 stage larvae. Doxycycline should be administered to target Wolbachia, an intracellular bacterium that has a symbiotic relationship with heartworms. Targeting Wolbachia results in weakened, unthrifty adult worms with decreased fecundity and contributes to death of microfilariae.
The American Heartworm Society guidelines should be strictly followed for appropriate treatment of heartworm disease and for recommendations on heartworm prevention. Year-round heartworm prevention for susceptible species is recommended regardless of geography.
Key Points
Quadruple therapy for treatment of congestive heart failure in dogs includes use of 1) furosemide or torsemide, 2) pimobendan, 3) spironolactone, and 4) enalapril or benazepril.
Cats with CHF are generally treated with furosemide and an ACE-I for CHF.
Clopidogrel and other antithrombotics are used to prevent arterial thromboembolism.
Antiarrhythmic drugs are chosen based on the specific underlying arrhythmia and arrhythmogenic mechanism.
The American Heartworm Society heartworm management protocol should be followed for treatment of heartworm disease.
For More Information
Cardiac Education Group. Formularies.
Luis Fuentes V, Abbott J, Chetboul V, et al. J Vet Intern Med. ACVIM consensus statement guidelines for the classification, diagnosis, and management of cardiomyopathies in cats. 2020;34:1062-1077.
Reinero C, Visser LV, Kellihan HB, et al.ACVIM consensus statement guidelines for the diagnosis, classification, treatment, and monitoring of pulmonary hypertension in dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2020;34:549-573.
Goggs R, Blais M-C, Brainard BM, et al. American College of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care (ACVECC) consensus on the rational use of antithrombotics in veterinary critical care (CURATIVE) guidelines: small animal. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2019;29:12-36
Wess G, Domenech O, Dukes-McEwan J, Häggström J, Gordon S. European Society of Veterinary Cardiology screening guidelines for dilated cardiomyopathy in Doberman Pinschers. J Vet Cardiol. 2017;19(5):405-415.
Also see pet owner content regarding treatment of cardiovascular disease in dogs, cats, and horses.
References
Grobman M, Reinero C. Investigation of neurokinin-1 receptor antagonism as a novel treatment for chronic bronchitis in dogs. J Vet Intern Med. 2016;30(3):847-52. doi:10.1111/jvim.13935.
Hogan DF, Fox PR, Jacob K, et al. Secondary prevention of cardiogenic arterial thromboembolism in the cat: the double-blind, randomized, positive-controlled feline arterial thromboembolism; clopidogrel vs. aspirin trial (FAT CAT). J Vet Cardiol. 2015;17(Suppl 1):S306-S317. doi:10.1016/j.jvc.2015.10.004
