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MSD MANUAL
Veterinary Manual
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Veterinary Topics
Toxicology
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Toxicology Introduction
Overview of Veterinary Toxicology
Toxicological Terminology
For More Information
Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion of Toxic Agents in Animals
Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism
Excretion
Key Points
For More Information
Factors Affecting the Activity of Toxic Agents in Animals
Exposure-Related Factors
Biological Factors
Chemical Factors
Key Points
For More Information
Diagnosis of Toxicosis in Animals
Key Points
For More Information
Principles of Toxicosis Treatment in Animals
Prevention of Further Absorption
Supportive Care
Specific Antidotes
Key Points
For More Information
Toxicologic Hazards in the Workplace
Introduction to Toxicologic Hazards in the Veterinary Workplace
Carbon Monoxide as a Veterinary Workplace Hazard
Cyanide as a Veterinary Workplace Hazard
Hydrogen Sulfide as a Veterinary Workplace Hazard
Nitrogen Dioxide as a Veterinary Workplace Hazard
Phosphine Gas Sources as Veterinary Workplace Hazards
Lack of Oxygen as a Veterinary Workplace Hazard
Algal Poisoning
Algal Poisoning of Animals
Etiology, Epidemiology, and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Cyanide Poisoning
Cyanide Poisoning in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment, Control, and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Food Hazards
Avocado (
Persea
spp) Toxicosis in Animals
Etiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Reference
Bread Dough Toxicosis in Animals
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Chocolate Toxicosis in Animals
Etiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Macadamia Nut Toxicosis in Dogs
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Grape, Raisin, and Tamarind (
Vitis
spp,
Tamarindus
spp) Toxicosis in Dogs
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Garlic and Onion (
Allium
spp) Toxicosis in Animals
Etiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Xylitol Toxicosis in Dogs
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Herbicide Poisoning
Overview of Herbicide Poisoning in Animals
Toxicity and Management
Bioherbicides
Key Points
For More Information
References
Inorganic Herbicides and Organic Arsenicals Toxic to Animals
Arsenicals
Borax
Sodium Chlorate
Key Points
For More Information
References
Organic Herbicides Toxic to Animals
Anilide, Acetamides, or Amide Compounds
Aromatic/Benzoic Acid Compounds
BipyridylCompounds or Quaternary Ammonium Herbicides
Carbamate and Thiocarbamate Compounds
Dinitrophenolic Compounds
Imidazolinones
Organophosphate Compounds
Phenoxy Acid Derivatives
Polycyclic Alkanoic Acids and Aryloxyphenoxypropionic Compounds
Protoporphyrinogen Oxidase Inhibitors
Substituted Anilines
Triazines and Triazoles
Triazinylsulfonylurea or Sulfonylurea Compounds
Triazolopyrimidine Compounds
Ureas and Thiourea Compounds
Other Herbicides
Key Points
For More Information
References
Toxicoses From Household Hazards
Overview of Household Hazard Toxicoses in Animals
Toxicoses From Alcohols in Animals
Etiology
Toxicokinetics
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Toxicoses From Corrosive Agents in Animals
General Corrosives
Etiology of General Corrosive Toxicoses
Pathogenesis of General Corrosive Toxicoses
Clinical Findings of General Corrosive Toxicoses
Treatment of General Corrosive Toxicoses
Alkaline Batteries
Etiology of Alkaline Battery Toxicoses
Pathogenesis of Alkaline Battery Toxicoses
Clinical Findings of Alkaline Battery Toxicoses
Diagnosis of Alkaline Battery Toxicoses
Treatment of Alkaline Battery Toxicoses
Cationic Detergents
Etiology of Cationic Detergent Toxicoses
Pathogenesis of Cationic Detergent Toxicoses
Clinical Findings of Cationic Detergent Toxicoses
Treatment of Cationic Detergent Toxicoses
Key Points
For More Information
Toxicoses From Household Cleaners and Personal Care Products in Animals
Detergents, Soaps, and Shampoos
Etiology of Detergent, Soap, and Shampoo Toxicoses
Pathogenesis of Detergent, Soap, and Shampoo Toxicoses
Clinical Findings of Detergent, Soap, and Shampoo Toxicoses
Treatment of Detergent, Soap, and Shampoo Toxicoses
Bleaches
Etiology of Bleach Toxicoses
Pathogenesis of Bleach Toxicoses
Clinical Findings of Bleach Toxicoses
Treatment of Bleach Toxicoses
Key Points
For More Information
References
Toxicosis From Mothballs in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Toxicoses From Essential Oils in Animals
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
References
Mycotoxicoses
Overview of Mycotoxicoses in Animals
Managing a Suspected Mycotoxicosis
Mycotoxin Adsorbents
For More Information
Aflatoxicosis in Animals
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Control, Prevention, and Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Ergotism in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control
Key Points
For More Information
Mycotoxin-Associated Estrogenism and Vulvovaginitis in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Control
Key Points
For More Information
Facial Eczema in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings, Lesions, and Diagnosis
Treatment, Control, and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Fescue Poisoning in Animals
Fescue Lameness
Summer Fescue Toxicosis
For More Information
Fumonisin Toxicosis in Animals
Equine Leukoencephalomalacia
Porcine Pulmonary Edema
For More Information
Mycotoxic Lupinosis in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings, Lesions, and Diagnosis
Control
Key Points
For More Information
Paspalum Staggers in Animals
For More Information
Slaframine Toxicosis in Animals
For More Information
Trichothecene Toxicosis in Animals
Diagnosis
Control
Key Points
For More Information
Tremorgenic Neuromycotoxicosis in Dogs
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Control
Key Points
For More Information
Rodenticide Poisoning
Strychnine Poisoning in Animals
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Decontamination in Strychnine Poisoning
Seizure and Tremor Control in Strychnine Poisoning
Anticonvulsant Drugs and Muscle Relaxants in Strychnine Poisoning
Additional Therapies for Severely Affected Patients in Strychnine Poisoning
Key Points
For More Information
Overview of Rodenticide Poisoning in Animals
Historical Considerations and Regulation of Rodenticide
Key Points
For More Information
Anticoagulant Rodenticide Poisoning in Animals
Clinical Signs
Decontamination
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Bromethalin Poisoning in Animals
Key Points
For More Information
Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D
3
) Poisoning in Animals
Key Points
For More Information
Phosphide (Zinc, Magnesium, Aluminum) Poisoning in Animals
Key Points
For More Information
References
Corn Cellulose Poisoning in Animals
Alpha-Chloralose Poisoning in Animals
Smoke Inhalation Injury
Smoke Inhalation Injury in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment, Control, and Prevention
Key Points
TOXICOSES FROM HUMAN DRUGS
Toxicoses From Cardiovascular Medications
Toxicoses in Animals From Cardiovascular Medications
Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors
Calcium Channel Blockers
Beta Blockers
Diuretics
Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (or Inhibitors)
For More Information
References
Toxicoses From Human Analgesics
Toxicoses From Human Analgesics in Animals
Acetaminophen
Treatment
Gabapentinoids
Gabapentin
Pregabalin
Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
Aspirin
Ibuprofen
Naproxen
Tramadol
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Toxicoses From Human Cold and Allergy Medications
Toxicoses in Animals From Human Cold and Allergy Medications
Antihistamines
Treatment of Antihistamine Toxicoses
Albuterol
Clinical Findings of Albuterol Toxicosis
Treatment of Albuterol Toxicosis
Dextromethorphan
Imidazoline Decongestants
Clinical Findings of Imidazoline Decongestant Toxicosis
Treatment of Imidazoline Decongestant Toxicosis
Phenylephrine
Pseudoephedrine and Ephedrine
Clinical Findings of Pseudoephedrine and Ephedrine Toxicoses
Treatment of Pseudoephedrine and Ephedrine Toxicoses
For More Information
References
Toxicoses From Human Antidepressants, Anxiolytics, and Sleep Aids
Toxicoses in Animals From Human Antidepressants, Anxiolytics, and Sleep Aids
Benzodiazepines
Antidepressants
Treatment of Antidepressant Toxicoses
Serotonin Syndrome
Sleep Aids
Zolpidem, Zaleplon, and Eszopiclone Toxicoses
Melatonin Toxicosis
For More Information
Toxicoses From Human Vitamins, Minerals, and Dietary Supplements
Toxicoses in Animals From Human Multivitamins and Supplements
Calcium
Copper
Iron
Magnesium
Vitamin A
Vitamin B
Niacin (Vitamin B3) Toxicosis
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Zinc
For More Information
References
Toxicoses in Animals From Human Dietary and Herbal Supplements
5-Hydroxytryptophan
Hops
Ma Huang (Ephedrine) and Guarana (Caffeine)
Ginseng
Kratom
Arnica
St. John's Wort
Ginkgo
Ashwagandha
Rauwolfia
Saw Palmetto
Mugwort
Alpha-Lipoic Acid
Key Points
Toxicoses From Human Recreational Drugs
Overview of Toxicoses in Animals From Human Recreational Drugs
Amphetamines and Their Derivatives
Pharmacokinetics and Mechanisms of Amphetamine Toxicity
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis of Amphetamine Toxicosis
Treatment of Amphetamine Toxicosis
Cocaine
Pharmacokinetics and Mechanisms of Cocaine Toxicity
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis of Cocaine Toxicosis
Treatment of Cocaine Toxicosis
Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB)
Pharmacokinetics and Mechanisms of GHB Toxicity
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis of GHB Toxicosis
Treatment of GHB Toxicosis
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
Pharmacokinetics and Mechanisms of LSD Toxicity
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis of LSD Toxicosis
Treatment of LSD Toxicosis
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), or Ecstasy
Pharmacokinetics and Mechanisms of MDMA (Ecstasy) Toxicity
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis of MDMA (Ecstasy) Toxicosis
Treatment of MDMA (Ecstasy) Toxicosis
Opioids
Pharmacokinetics and Mechanisms of Opioid Toxicity
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis of Opioid Toxicoses
Treatment of Opioid Toxicoses
Phencyclidine (PCP)
Pharmacokinetics and Mechanisms of PCP Toxicity
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis of PCP Toxicosis
Treatment of PCP Toxicosis
For More Information
References
Toxicosis in Dogs and Cats From Cannabidiol (CBD)
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Toxicity and Pharmacokinetics
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis and Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Toxicosis in Dogs and Cats From Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Pharmacokinetics and Toxicity
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Decontamination and Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Toxicoses in Animals From Amphetamines and ADHD Drugs in Animals
Pharmacokinetics and Mechanisms of Toxicity
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
For More Information
References
Toxicosis From Human Topical Agents
Toxicosis in Animals From Human Topical Agents
Topical Antifungals
Calcipotriene
Corticosteroids
Estrogens
Fentanyl Patches
5-Fluorouracil
Lidocaine
Minoxidil
Nicotine Patches
Topical NSAIDs
Salicylates
Tacrolimus
Tretinoin
Triple Antibiotic Ointment
Zinc Oxide
For More Information
Toxicoses From Skeletal Muscle Relaxants
Toxicoses From Skeletal Muscle Relaxants in Animals
Baclofen
Treatment
Carisoprodol
Treatment
Cyclobenzaprine
Treatment
Methocarbamol
Treatment
Tizanidine
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
FEED CONTAMINANTS
Nonprotein Nitrogen Poisoning
Nonprotein Nitrogen Poisoning in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention and Control
Key Points
For More Information
INDUSTRIAL TOXICANTS
Ethylene Glycol Toxicosis
Ethylene Glycol Toxicosis in Animals
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Propylene Glycol Toxicosis in Animals
For More Information
Nitrate and Nitrite Poisoning
Nitrate and Nitrite Poisoning in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control
Key Points
For More Information
Petroleum Product Poisoning
Petroleum Product Poisoning in Animals
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Effects of Oil and Gas Fields on Cattle Health and Production
Key Points
For More Information
Persistent Halogenated Aromatic Poisoning
Poisoning of Animals by Persistent Halogenated Pollutants (PHPs)
Routes of Exposure and Exposure Pathways
Absorption, Biomagnification, Translocation, and Food Safety
Chronic Toxicology
References
Clinical Findings, Lesions, and Diagnosis
Prevention and Treatment
INSECTICIDES, ACARICIDES, AND MOLLUSCICIDES
Insecticide and Acaricide (Organic) Toxicity
Overview of Insecticide and Acaricide (Organic) Toxicosis in Animals
For More Information
Carbamate Toxicosis in Animals
Aldicarb
Carbaryl
Carbofuran
Methomyl
Propoxur
Mechanism of Action
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
For More Information
Plant-Derived Insecticide Toxicosis in Animals
Rotenone
Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids
For More Information
Organophosphate Toxicosis in Animals
Organophosphate Insecticides
Azinphos-Methyl (or -Ethyl)
Carbophenothion
Chlorfenvinphos
Chlorpyrifos
Coumaphos
Crotoxyphos
Demeton
Diazinon
Dichlorvos
Dimethoate
Dioxathion
Disulfoton
Ethyl 4-Nitrophenyl Phenylphosphonothioate
Famphur
Fenitrothion
Fenthion
Malathion
Methyl Parathion
Mevinphos
Naled
Parathion
Phorate
Phosmet
Ronnel (Fenchlorphos)
Ruelene
Temephos
Terbufos
Tetrachlorvinphos
Tetraethyl Pyrophosphate
Trichlorfon
Mechanism of Action
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Intermediate Syndrome
For More Information
Delayed Neurotoxicity from Triaryl Phosphates and Other Organophosphates and Carbamates in Animals
For More Information
Pesticide Potentiating Agent Toxicosis in Animals
Piperonyl Butoxide
Sesamex
Piperonyl Cyclonene and Diallyl Succinate
For More Information
Other Toxicants in Animals
Solvents
Acetone
Isopropyl Alcohol
Methanol
For More Information
Neonicotinoid Toxicosis in Animals
For More Information
Phenylpyrazole (Fipronil) Toxicosis in Animals
For More Information
Triazapentadiene (Amitraz) Toxicosis in Animals
For More Information
Oxadiazine Toxicosis in Animals
For More Information
Isoxazoline Toxicosis in Animals
Afoxolaner
Fluralaner
Sarolaner
Lotilaner
Insect Growth and Development Regulator Toxicosis in Animals
Insect Growth Regulators
Methoprene
Hydropene
Pyriproxyfen
Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors
Diflubenzuron
Flufenoxuron
Lufenuron
Metaldehyde Poisoning
Metaldehyde Poisoning in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Signs and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
METALS AND MICRONUTRIENTS
Arsenic Poisoning
Overview of Arsenic Poisoning in Animals
Inorganic Arsenical Toxicosis in Animals
Toxicokinetics and Mechanism of Action
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Organic Arsenical Toxicosis in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
Copper Poisoning
Copper Poisoning in Animals
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
Fluoride Poisoning
Fluoride Poisoning in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
References
Iron Toxicosis in Newborn Pigs
Iron Toxicosis in Newborn Pigs
Etiology
Toxicokinetics
Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism
Excretion
Mechanism of Action
Median Lethal Dose
References
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Clinical Characterization
Clinicopathologic Findings
Postmortem Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
Antidote
Supportive care
Chelation Therapy
Prevention
References
Key Points
Lead Poisoning
Lead Poisoning in Animals
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Mercury Poisoning
Mercury Poisoning in Animals
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Salt Toxicosis
Salt Toxicosis in Animals
Etiology
Mechanism of Action
Toxicokinetics
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Selenium Toxicosis
Selenium Toxicosis in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
Zinc Toxicosis
Zinc Toxicosis in Animals
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
PLANTS AND FUNGI
Bracken Fern and Other Fern Poisoning
Bracken Fern and Other Fern Poisoning in Animals
Syndromes
Fern Poisoning–Associated Hemorrhagic Disease and Immunodeficiency Syndrome
Fern Poisoning–Associated Bovine Enzootic Hematuria and Gastrointestinal Cancers
Fern Poisoning–Associated Retinal Degeneration (Bright Blindness)
Fern Poisoning–Associated Polioencephalomalacia in Sheep
Fern Poisoning–Associated Acute Cardiopulmonary Failure in Sheep
Fern Poisoning–Associated Neurocardiac Syndrome in Pigs and Horses
Fern Poisoning–Associated Developmental Toxicosis
Diagnosis
Prevention and Control
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Gossypol Poisoning
Gossypol Poisoning in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Prevention, Treatment, and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Poisonous Mushrooms
Overview of Mushrooms Toxic to Animals
Toxin Latent Period ≤3 Hours After Ingestion of Mushrooms
Clitocybe
spp and
Inocybe
spp
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Amanita muscaria
and
A pantherina
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Chlorophyllum molybdites
and
Russula emetica
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Psilocybe cubensis
,
Conocybe cyanopus
,
Gymnopilus spectabilis
, and
Panaeolus subbalteatus
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Toxin Latent Period >6 Hours After Ingestion of Mushrooms
Conocybe filaris
,
Amanita phalloides
,
A Ocreata
,
A bisporigera, Lepiota
spp, and
Galerina marginata
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Gyromitra esculenta
Clinical Findings
Treatment
Toxin Latent Period >24 Hours After Ingestion of Mushrooms
Cortinarius orellanosus
and
Cortinarius rubellus
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Miscellaneous Poisonous Mushrooms
Ramaria flavo-brunnescens
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Paxillus involutus
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis and Treatment
Poisonous Plants
Houseplants and Ornamentals Toxic to Animals
Plants Containing Soluble Oxalates
Plants Containing Insoluble Oxalates
Grayanotoxin-containing Plants
Plants Containing Cardiac Glycoside
Cyanogenic Glycoside Plants
Lilies
Cycads (Sago Palm)
Common Gastrointestinal Irritant Plants
For More Information
Range Plants of Temperate North America
Important Poisonous Plants of Australia
For More Information
Pyrrolizidine Alkaloidosis
Pyrrolizidine Alkaloidosis in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Toxicokinetics
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
For More Information
Quercus
Poisoning
Quercus
Poisoning in Animals
Annual Ryegrass Toxicosis
Annual Ryegrass Toxicosis in Animals
Pathogenesis
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Perennial Ryegrass Toxicosis
Perennial Ryegrass Toxicosis in Animals
Pathogenesis
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Moldy Sweet Clover Poisoning
Moldy Sweet Clover Poisoning in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
POISONOUS AND VENOMOUS ORGANISMS
Cantharidin Toxicosis
Cantharidin Toxicosis in Animals
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Snakebite
Snakebites in Animals
Epidemiology
References
Pathophysiology
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
References
Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
Toad Poisoning
Toad Poisoning in Dogs and Cats
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Venomous Arthropods
Spider and Scorpion Bites in Animals
Brown Recluse Spiders
Scorpions
Tarantulas
Widow Spiders
Wasp, Bee, and Ant Stings to Animals
Honey Bees, Wasps, Hornets, and Yellow Jackets
Africanized Honey Bees (“Killer Bees”)
Fire Ants
