honeypot link
skip to main content
MSD MANUAL
Veterinary Manual
VETERINARY PROFESSIONALS
PET OWNERS
RESOURCES
QUIZZES
ABOUT
VETERINARY PROFESSIONALS
PET OWNERS
<
Veterinary Topics
Nervous System
Expand all
Collapse all
The Neurologic Examination
The Neurologic Examination of Animals
Taking a History
Evaluating Posture
Assessing Mentation and Behavior
Examining the Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory Nerve)
Cranial Nerve II (Optic Nerve)
Cranial Nerves III, IV, and VI (Oculomotor, Trochlear, and Abducens Nerves)
Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal Nerve)
Cranial Nerve VII (Facial Nerve)
Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear Nerve)
Cranial Nerves IX and X (Glossopharyngeal and Vagus Nerves)
Cranial Nerve XI (Spinal Accessory Nerve)
Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal Nerve)
Evaluating Gait
Ataxia
Weakness
Lameness
Assessing Postural Reactions
Proprioceptive Positioning
Hopping Reaction
Placing Response
Testing Spinal Reflexes
Patellar Reflex
Pelvic Limb Withdrawal Reflex
Thoracic Limb Withdrawal Reflex
Perineal Reflex
Cutaneous Trunci Reflex
Palpation
Evaluating Nociception
Superficial Pain
Deep Pain
Neuroanatomical Localization
Forebrain
Brainstem
Cerebellum
C1-C5 Spinal Segments
C6-T2 Spinal Segments
T3-L3 Spinal Segments
L4-S3 Spinal Segments
Peripheral Nerve Lesions
Muscle Disorders
For More Information
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Etiology
Transmission, Epidemiology, and Pathogenesis
References
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
For More Information
Central Nervous System Diseases Caused by Helminths and Arthropods
Overview of Central Nervous System Diseases in Animals Caused by Helminths and Arthropods
Immature (Larval) Stages of Parasites of Carnivorous Animals
Immature Stages of Parasites Exhibiting a Neurotropic Affinity
Erratic or Aberrant Parasites
Incidental Parasites
Facultative Parasites
Treatment and Control
For More Information
Cestodes Causing CNS Disease in Animals
Coenurosis
Cysticercosis
Echinococcosis
For More Information
Trematodes Causing CNS Disease in Animals
Paragonimiasis
Schistosomiasis
Troglotremiasis
For More Information
Nematodes Causing CNS Disease in Animals
Ascarids
Filarids
Metastrongyles
References
Meningeal worm (
Parelaphostrongylus tenuis
)
Canine neuroangiostrongylosis
Etiology
Pathogenesis and Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Rhabditoids
Miscellaneous Nematodes
For More Information
Arthropods that Cause CNS Disease in Animals
For More Information
Chronic Wasting Disease
Chronic Wasting Disease
Etiology
Transmission, Epidemiology, and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
For More Information
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Nervous System in Small Animals
Overview of Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Nervous System in Small Animals
For More Information
Congenital and Inherited Cerebral Disorders in Small Animals
Congenital Cerebral Disorders
Hydranencephaly in Dogs and Cats
Hydrocephalus in Dogs
Lissencephaly in Dogs
Pendular Nystagmus in Cats
Congenital Deafness in Dogs
Inherited Cerebral Disorders
Necrotizing Meningoencephalitis
Neonatal Encephalopathy in Standard Poodles
Polymicrogyria in Standard Poodles
Idiopathic (Familial) Epilepsy in Dogs
Paroxysmal Dyskinesia in Dogs
Hepatic Encephalopathy in Dogs and Cats
Lysosomal Storage Disorders in Small Animals
Puppy Hypoglycemia
Narcolepsy and Cataplexy in Dogs and Cats
Key Points
For More Information
References
Congenital and Inherited Cerebellar Disorders in Dogs and Cats
Congenital Cerebellar Disorders
Cerebellar Hypoplasia in Dogs and Cats
Caudal Occipital Malformation Syndrome in Dogs
Inherited Cerebellar Disorders
Cerebellar Abiotrophies in Dogs
Neuraxonal Dystrophy in Dogs and Cats
Bandera's Neonatal Ataxia in Coton de Tulear Dogs
Congenital Hypomyelination in Dogs and Cats
Key Points
For More Information
References
Congenital and Inherited Brainstem Disorders in Dogs
Congenital Vestibular Disease
For More Information
Congenital and Inherited Spinal Cord Disorders in Dogs and Cats
Inherited Spinal Cord Disorders
Spinal Muscular Atrophy in Dogs
Demyelination of Miniature Poodles
Hereditary Ataxia in Dogs
Afghan Hound Myelopathy
Leukoencephalomyelopathy of Rottweilers
Calcium Phosphate Deposition in Great Danes
Degenerative Myelopathy in Dogs
Progressive Axonopathy of Boxer Dogs
Breed-Associated Aseptic Meningitis in Dogs
Caudal Cervical Spondylomyelopathy in Dogs
Arachnoid Diverticuli in Dogs
Congenital Spinal Cord Disorders
Congenital Vertebral Malformations in Dogs
Caudal Articular Hypoplasia in Dogs
Multiple Cartilaginous Exostosis in Dogs
Atlantoaxial Subluxation in Dogs
Syringomyelia in Dogs
Spinal Dysraphism in Dogs
Spina Bifida in Dogs and Cats
Tethered Cord Syndrome in Dogs
Pilonidal Sinus in Dogs and Cats
Key Points
For More Information
References
Congenital and Inherited Neuromuscular Disorders in Dogs and Cats
Congenital Neuromuscular Disorders
Congenital Laryngeal Paralysis in Dogs
Congenital Myasthenia Gravis in Dogs and Cats
Congenital Myoclonus of Labrador Retrievers
Congenital Megaesophagus in Dogs and Cats
Inherited Neuromuscular Disorders
Inherited Polyneuropathy of Leonberger Dogs
Hypertrophic Neuropathy of Tibetan Mastiffs
Neuropathy of Hereditary Hyperchylomicronemia in Cats
Musladin-Lueke Syndrome in Beagles
Alaskan Malamute Polyneuropathy
Primary Hyperoxaluria in Dogs and Cats
Sensory Neuropathy in Longhaired Dachshunds
Sensory Neuropathy in Border Collies
Sensory Neuropathy in Pointers
Polyneuropathy of Bengal Cats
Key Points
For More Information
References
Congenital and Inherited Generalized Disorders That Affect the Nervous System in Dogs and Cats
Generalized Metabolic and Degenerative Disorders
Canine Multiple System Degeneration
Multisystemic Chromatolytic Neuronal Degeneration in Cairn Terriers
Multisystemic Neuronal Degeneration in Dogs
Familial Cerebellar Ataxia With Hydrocephalus in Bullmastiffs
Hereditary Cavitating Leukodystrophy in Dalmatians
Central Axonopathy in Scottish Terriers
Fibrinoid Leukodystrophy in Dogs
Spongiform Degenerative Conditions in Dogs and Cats
Hereditary Quadriplegia and Amblyopia in Irish Setters
Alaskan Husky Encephalopathy
Degenerative Encephalopathy in Nova Scotia Duck Tolling Retrievers
L-2-Hydroxyglutaric Aciduria in Dogs
Lysosomal Storage Disorders
Sphingolipidoses
Glycoproteinoses
Mucopolysaccharidoses
Glycogen Storage Disorders
Less Common Storage Disorders
Key Points
For More Information
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Nervous System in Large Animals
Overview of Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Nervous System in Large Animals
For More Information
Congenital and Inherited Cerebral Disorders in Large Animals
Congenital Cerebral Disorders
Anencephaly in Large Animals
Exencephaly in Large Animals
Hydranencephaly in Large Animals
Hydrocephalus in Large Animals
Cyclopia in Sheep and Pigs
Lissencephaly in Sheep
Pendular Nystagmus in Cattle
Inherited Cerebral Disorders
Idiopathic (Familial) Epilepsy in Large Animals
Narcolepsy and Cataplexy in Large Animals
Key Points
For More Information
References
Congenital and Inherited Cerebellar Disorders in Large Animals
Congenital Cerebellar Disorders
Arnold-Chiari Malformation in Large Animals
Cerebellar Hypoplasia in Large Animals
Inherited Cerebellar Disorders
Cerebellar Abiotrophies in Large Animals
Hypomyelinogenesis Congenita in Large Animals
Swayback in Large Animals
Key Points
For More Information
Congenital and Inherited Spinal Cord Disorders in Large Animals
Inherited Spinal Cord Disorders
Spinal Muscular Atrophy in Large Animals
Bovine Progressive Degenerative Myeloencephalopathy
Simmental Encephalomyelopathy in Calves
Progressive Myelopathy of Murray Grey Cattle
Progressive Ataxia of Charolais Cattle
Neuraxonal Dystrophy in Large Animals
Equine Degenerative Myeloencephalopathy
Progressive Paresis in Angora Goats
Congenital Spinal Cord Disorders
Cervical Stenotic Myelopathy in Large Animals
Occipitoatlantoaxial Malformation in Large Animals
Spina Bifida in Large Animals
Complex Vertebral Malformation in Large Animals
Key Points
For More Information
References
Congenital and Inherited Generalized Disorders That Affect the Nervous System in Large Animals
Startle Disorders
Shaker Calf Syndrome
Vitamin A Deficiency
Inborn Errors of Metabolism
Citrullinemia in Large Animals
Maple Syrup Urine Disease in Hereford Calves
Lysosomal Storage Disorders
Generalized Glycogenosis
Sphingolipidoses
Glycoproteinoses
Mucopolysaccharidoses
Key Points
For More Information
References
Diseases of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction
Overview of Diseases of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction in Animals
Degenerative Disorders of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction in Animals
Acquired Laryngeal Paralysis
Canine Chronic Axonal Degeneration
Dancing Doberman Disease
Distal Denervating Disease
Distal Polyneuropathy of Rottweilers
Idiopathic Facial Paralysis
Laryngeal Paralysis in Horses
Stringhalt (Equine Reflex Hypertonia)
Inflammatory Disorders of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction in Animals
Acquired Myasthenia Gravis
Acute Idiopathic Polyradiculoneuritis
Chronic Relapsing Idiopathic Polyradiculoneuritis
Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy
Polyneuritis Equi
Protozoal Polyradiculoneuritis
Sensory Ganglioneuritis
Trigeminal Neuritis
Metabolic Disorders of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction in Animals
Diabetic Neuropathy
Hypothyroid Neuropathy
Neoplasia of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction in Animals
Nerve Sheath Tumors
Paraneoplastic Neuropathy
Nutritional Disorders of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction in Animals
Pantothenic Acid Deficiency
Riboflavin Deficiency in Chickens
Toxic Disorders of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction in Animals
Botulism
Ionophore Toxicity
Organophosphate Poisoning
Tick Paralysis
Trauma of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction in Animals
Brachial Plexus Avulsion
Calving Paralysis
Facial Nerve Trauma
Peripheral Nerve Injuries
Vascular Diseases of the Peripheral Nerves and Neuromuscular Junction in Animals
Ischemic Neuromyopathy
Diseases of the Spinal Column and Cord
Overview of Diseases of the Spinal Column and Cord in Animals
Degenerative Diseases of the Spinal Column and Cord in Animals
Cervical Spondylomyelopathy
Degenerative Lumbosacral Stenosis
Degenerative Myelopathy of Dogs
Equine Degenerative Myeloencephalopathy
Intervertebral Disk Disease
Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis
Equine Motor Neuron Disease
Degeneration of Motor Neurons
Metabolic Storage Disorders
Spondylosis Deformans
Inflammatory and Infectious Diseases of the Spinal Column and Cord in Animals
Bacterial Diseases
Rickettsial Diseases
Viral Diseases
Fungal Diseases
Protozoal Diseases
Parasitic Diseases
Idiopathic Inflammatory Diseases
Neoplasia of the Spinal Column and Cord in Animals
Nutritional Disorders of the Spinal Column and Cord in Animals
Copper Deficiency
Hypervitaminosis A
Thiamine Deficiency
Trauma of the Spinal Column and Cord in Animals
Toxicoses of the Spinal Column and Cord in Animals
Arsenic Poisoning
Delayed Organophosphate Intoxication
Sorghum Poisoning
Tetanus
Vascular Diseases of the Spinal Cord in Animals
Fibrocartilaginous Embolism
Postanesthetic Hemorrhagic Myelopathy in Horses
Dysautonomia
Feline Dysautonomia
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Canine Dysautonomia
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
Leporine Dysautonomia
Equine Dysautonomia
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Eye Drop Test
Biopsies
Treatment
Lesions
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
References
Overview of Dysautonomia in Animals
Epilepsy in Small Animals
Epilepsy in Small Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Initiation of Antiseizure Medications
General Concepts of Antiseizure Therapy
Specific Antiseizure Medications in Epilepsy
Key Points
For More Information
References
Equine Arboviral Encephalomyelitis
Equine Arboviral Encephalomyelitis
Etiology and Epidemiology
Alphaviruses
Flaviviruses
Bunyaviruses
Zoonotic Risk
Clinical Findings
Lesions on Post-mortem Examination
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis
Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis
Etiology and Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention and Control
Key Points
For More Information
References
Facial Paralysis
Facial Paralysis in Animals
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
Limb Paralysis
Limb Paralysis in Animals
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Thoracic Limb
Pelvic Limb
Diagnosis and Treatment
Key Points
Louping Ill
Louping Ill in Animals
Etiology and Transmission
Pathogenesis, Clinical Findings, and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
References
Meningitis, Encephalitis, and Encephalomyelitis
Meningitis, Encephalitis, and Encephalomyelitis in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Bacterial Infections
Viral Infections
Infections Caused by Parasites
Fungal Infections
Idiopathic/Immune Mediated
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Motion Sickness
Motion Sickness in Animals
For More Information
Myelin Disorders
Myelin Disorders in Animals
Central Myelinopathy
Hypomelination
Dysmyelination
Spongy Degeneration
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
CNS Hypomyelination
PNS Hypomyelination
Diagnosis
Central Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
Treatment, Control, and Prevention
Key Points
References
For More Information
Neoplasia of the Nervous System
Neoplasia of the Nervous System in Large Animals
Nervous System Neoplasia of Horses
Intracranial Neoplasia in Horses
Spinal and Peripheral Nerve Neoplasia in Horses
Nervous System Neoplasia of Cattle
Intracranial Neoplasia of Cattle
Spinal and Peripheral Neoplasia of Cattle
Nervous System Neoplasia of Other Large Animals
Key Points
For More Information
References
Neoplasia of the Nervous System in Small Animals
Classification
Epidemiology
Clinical Characteristics
Brain Tumors in Small Animals
Spinal Cord Tumors in Small Animals
Tumors of the Peripheral Nerves in Small Animals
Other Clinical Syndromes Associated With Tumors of the Nervous System
Diagnosis
Radiography in Neoplasia of the Nervous System
Myelography in Neoplasia of the Nervous System
MRI in Neoplasia of the Nervous System
CT in Neoplasia of the Nervous System
CSF Analysis in Neoplasia of the Nervous System
Prognosis and Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Polioencephalomalacia
Polioencephalomalacia in Ruminants
Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Epidemiology
Thiamine-Associated Polioencephalomalacia
Sulfur-Associated Polioencephalomalacia
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
Key Points
References
Pseudorabies
Pseudorabies in Pigs
Etiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings and Pathogenesis
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
References
Rabies
Rabies in Animals
Etiology
Classification of Viral Genome
Structure
Replication
Pathogenic Mechanisms
Epidemiology
Geographic Distribution
Incubation Period
Transmission Dynamics
Clinical Findings
Furious Form
Paralytic Form
Species Variations
Diagnosis
Prevention and Control
Domestic Animal Management
Oral Vaccination of Wildlife
Disinfection
Management of Suspected Rabies Cases—Exposure of Pets
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
References
For More Information
Scrapie
Scrapie
Etiology, Transmission, and Pathogenesis
Etiology
Resistance and Susceptibility
Transmission
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Control
Trans-species Transmission
References
Key Points
For More Information
Sporadic Bovine Encephalomyelitis
Sporadic Bovine Encephalomyelitis
Etiology and Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions of Sporadic Bovine Encephalomyelitis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
References
Stray Voltage in Animal Housing
Stray Voltage in Animal Housing
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Prevention and Control
Key Points
For More Information
References
Teschovirus Encephalomyelitis
Teschovirus Encephalomyelitis
Etiology, Epidemiology, and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Tick Paralysis
Tick Paralysis in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Prevention and Control
For More Information
