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MSD MANUAL
Veterinary Manual
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Veterinary Topics
Digestive System
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Digestive System Introduction
The Digestive System in Animals
Function
Pathophysiology
Clinical Findings of Gastrointestinal Disease
Examination of the Gastrointestinal Tract
For More Information
Infectious Diseases of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Animals
Gastrointestinal Parasitism
Treatment of Infectious Diseases
Control of Infectious Diseases
For More Information
Noninfectious Diseases of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Animals
For More Information
Principles of Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disease in Animals
For More Information
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies Involving the Digestive System
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Mouth in Animals
Congenital Oronasal Fistulas (Cleft Palate and Cleft Lip)
Occlusal Anomalies
Tongue Anomalies
Tight-lip Syndrome of Chinese Shar-Pei
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Teeth in Animals
Abnormalities in Number
Irregularities of Shedding
Abnormalities in Position, Shape, and Direction
Enamel Lesions
Congenital Cysts of the Head and Neck in Animals
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Esophagus in Animals
Hernias in Animals
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Stomach in Animals
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Small and Large Intestines in Animals
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Liver in Animals
References
Pharyngeal Paralysis
Pharyngeal Paralysis in Animals
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Diseases of the Rectum and Anus
Anal Sac Disease in Dogs and Cats
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Perianal Fistula in Dogs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Perianal Tumors in Animals
Perineal Hernia in Dogs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Rectal and Anorectal Strictures in Animals
For More Information
Rectal Neoplasia in Dogs and Cats
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
For More Information
Rectal Prolapse in Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Rectal Tears in Animals
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Peritonitis
Peritonitis in Animals
Etiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Cattle
Small Ruminants, South American Camelids, and Pigs
Horses
Dogs and Cats
Diagnosis
Advanced Diagnostic Procedures
Laboratory Analyses
Prognosis
Treatment
Key Points
ForMore Information
Enteric Campylobacteriosis
Enteric Campylobacteriosis in Animals
Etiology
Transmission and Epidemiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
References
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
For More Information
Salmonellosis
Salmonellosis in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Cattle
Sheep
Pigs
Horses
Dogs and Cats
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Lesions
Treatment
Control and Prevention
Preventing Introduction to a Herd
Limiting Transmission Within a Herd
Salmonella
Vaccines
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
For More Information
References
Salmonella
Dublin Infection in Cattle
Prevalence
Pathogenesis and Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention and Control
Farm Management Practices
Sanitation
Biosecurity
Vaccination
Key Points
For More Information
Giardiasis (Giardia)
Giardiasis in Animals
Cycle and Transmission
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings and Lesions
References
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control
Key Points
For More Information
Disorders of the Esophagus in Large Animals
Esophageal Obstruction in Large Animals
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Complications of Esophageal Obstruction
Esophageal Obstruction Secondary to Extraesophageal Disease
Esophageal Strictures in Large Animals
Esophageal Neoplasia in Large Animals
Gastrointestinal Ulcers in Large Animals
Gastric Ulcers in Horses
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
References
Key Points
For More Information
Overview of Gastrointestinal Ulcers in Large Animals
Gastric Ulcers in Pigs
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Diseases of the Ruminant Forestomach
Simple Indigestion in Ruminants
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
References
Key Points
For More Information
Grain Overload in Ruminants
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Subacute Ruminal Acidosis in Cattle and Sheep
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Bloat in Ruminants
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Traumatic Reticuloperitonitis in Cattle
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Chronic Indigestion Syndrome in Ruminants
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Laboratory Findings
Diagnostic Testing
Differential Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Reticuloruminal Milk Accumulation ("Ruminal Drinking") in Calves
Ruminal Parakeratosis in Cattle and Sheep
Diseases of the Abomasum
Overview of Diseases of the Abomasum in Cattle
Left or Right Displaced Abomasum and Abomasal Volvulus in Cattle
Etiology
References
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
Abomasal Ulcers in Cattle
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Clinical Diagnosis and Ultrasonography
Occult Blood
Hematology
Abdominocentesis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
Dietary Abomasal Impaction in Cattle
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Dietary Causes
Nondietary Causes
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention and Control
Key Points
Acute Intestinal Obstructions in Large Animals
Acute Intestinal Obstructions in Large Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Colic in Horses
Overview of Colic in Horses
Gastrointestinal Anatomy
Blood Supply to the GI Tract
Natural Openings in the Abdomen
Colonic Motility Patterns
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Pain Relief
Fluid Therapy
Protection Against Components of Enteric Bacteria
Intestinal Lubricants and Laxatives
Larvicidal Deworming
Surgery
Prognosis
For More Information
Diseases Associated with Colic in Horses by Anatomic Location
Stomach
Gastric Dilatation and Gastric Rupture
Gastric Impaction
Small Intestine
Ileal Impaction
Adhesions
Ascarid Impaction
Proximal Enteritis–Jejunitis
Intussusception
Volvulus
Pedunculated Lipomas
Internal Incarceration
Inguinal Hernia
Cecum and Large Intestine
Impaction
Enterolithiasis
Left Dorsal Displacement of the Colon
Right Dorsal Displacement of the Colon
Right Dorsal Colitis
Volvulus of the Large Colon
Impaction and Foreign Body Obstruction of the Descending Colon
For More Information
Intestinal Diseases in Ruminants
Intestinal Diseases in Cattle
Hemorrhagic Bowel Syndrome
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Winter Dysentery
Etiology
Transmission, Epidemiology, and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Other Intestinal Diseases of Cattle
Intestinal Diseases in Sheep and Goats
Watery Mouth Disease in Lambs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Diarrhea in Neonatal Ruminants
Etiology
Bacteria
Viruses
Protozoa
Other Causes
Epidemiology and Transmission
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention and Control
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
Paratuberculosis in Ruminants
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Control
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
For More Information
Infectious Diarrheal Diseases in Horses
Overview of Infectious Diarrheal Diseases in Horses
Salmonellosis in Horses
Clinical Findings
References
Diagnosis
References
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
Potomac Horse Fever
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
Clostridial Enterocolitis in Horses
Predisposing Causes
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Key Points
References
Gastrointestinal Parasites in Horses
Diarrheal Diseases in Foals
Foal Heat Diarrhea
Bacterial Diarrhea in Foals
Equine Proliferative Enteropathy
Diagnosis
Treatment
Viral Diarrhea in Foals
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Overview of Diarrheal Diseases in Foals
Miscellaneous Intestinal Diseases in Horses
Colitis-X in Horses
Sand Enteropathy in Horses
Miscellaneous Causes of Diarrhea in Horses
Gastrointestinal Neoplasia in Horses
Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Horses
Pathogenesis
Diagnosis
Treatment
NSAID Toxicosis and Right Dorsal Colitis (RDC) in Horses
Pathogenesis
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Dietary Management
Surgical Intervention
Prevention
Free Fecal Water Syndrome in Horses
Intestinal Diseases in Pigs
Overview of Intestinal Diseases in Pigs
Clostridioides difficile
Enteritis in Pigs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Clostridium perfringens
Type A Enteritis in Pigs
Clostridium perfringens
Type C Enteritis in Pigs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Enteric Colibacillosis in Pigs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Edema Disease in Pigs
Hemorrhagic Bowel Syndrome in Pigs
Intestinal Salmonellosis in Pigs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Intestinal Spirochetosis in Pigs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Parasitism (Gastrointestinal) in Pigs
Porcine Coronaviral Enteritis
Etiology and Epidemiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Porcine Proliferative Enteropathy
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Rectal Strictures in Pigs
Rotaviral Enteritis in Pigs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Swine Dysentery
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Fluke Infections in Ruminants
Overview of Fluke Infections in Ruminants
Fasciola hepatica
in Ruminants
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Control
Key Points
For More Information
Fasciola gigantica
in Ruminants
Fascioloides magna
in Ruminants
Dicrocoelium dendriticum
in Ruminants
Eurytrema
spp in Ruminants
Paramphistomes in Ruminants
Malassimilation Syndromes in Large Animals
Malassimilation Syndromes in Large Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
D-Xylose Absorption Test
D-Glucose Absorption Test
Oral Lactose Tolerance Test
Treatment
Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Abdominal Fat Necrosis
Abdominal Fat Necrosis in Animals
Diseases of the Esophagus in Small Animals
Cricopharyngeal Achalasia in Small Animals
Dilatation of the Esophagus in Small Animals
References
Esophageal Dysmotility in Small Animals
Esophageal Strictures in Small Animals
References
Esophagitis in Small Animals
Esophageal Foreign Bodies in Small Animals
Esophageal Diverticula in Small Animals
Bronchoesophageal Fistula in Small Animals
The Exocrine Pancreas
Overview of the Exocrine Pancreas in Dogs and Cats
Pancreatitis in Dogs and Cats
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis of Pancreatitis in Dogs and Cats
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency in Dogs and Cats
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis of Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency in Dogs and Cats
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Exocrine Pancreatic Neoplasia in Dogs and Cats
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis of Exocrine Pancreatic Neoplasia
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Diseases of the Stomach and Intestines in Small Animals
Diseases of the Large Intestine in Small Animals
Colitis in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis of Colitis
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Dietary Therapy in Colitis
Antimicrobial Therapy in Colitis
Modulation of the Microbiome in Colitis
Anti-Inflammatory/Immunosuppressive Therapy in Colitis
Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Constipation, Obstipation, and Megacolon in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
References
Acute Hemorrhagic Diarrhea Syndrome in Dogs
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Diseases of the Small Intestine in Small Animals
Chronic Enteropathies in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Cobalamin and Folate Supplementation in Chronic Enteropathies
Dietary Therapy in Chronic Enteropathies
Sulfasalazine in Chronic Enteropathies
Manipulation of the Gastrointestinal Microbiome in Chronic Enteropathies
Immunosuppressives in Chronic Enteropathies
Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Malabsorption Syndromes in Small Animals
Physiology
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
History in Malabsorption Syndrome
Physical Examination in Malabsorption Syndrome
Minimum Database in Malabsorption Syndrome
Specific Rule-Outs in Malabsorption Syndrome
Imaging in Malabsorption Syndrome
Serum Folate and Cobalamin in Malabsorption Syndrome
Markers of Protein-Losing Enteropathies and Small Intestinal Inflammation in Malabsorption Syndrome
Empirical Treatment Trials in Malabsorption Syndrome
Intestinal Biopsy in Malabsorption Syndrome
Treatment
Dietary Modification in Malabsorption Syndrome
Supportive Care in Malabsorption Syndrome
Specific Treatments in Malabsorption Syndrome
Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Diseases of the Stomach in Small Animals
Gastritis in Small Animals
Acute Gastritis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Chronic Gastritis
Key Points
For More Information
Gastrointestinal Ulcers in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
Helicobacter
Infection in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
For More Information
References
Infectious Diseases of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Small Animals
Canine Parvovirus Infection (Parvoviral Enteritis in Dogs)
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis of Canine Parvovirus Infection
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions in Canine Parvovirus Infection
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Prevention and Control
Key Points
For More Information
References
Feline Enteric Coronavirus Infection
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Feline Panleukopenia
Etiology, Transmission, and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment, Prevention, and Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Neoplasia of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Small Animals
Gastrointestinal Neoplasia in Dogs and Cats
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Dogs
Cats
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Hematology and Serology
Abdominal Imaging
Thoracic Imaging
Endoscopy
Histological and Molecular Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Canine Carcinoma
Feline Carcinoma
Canine Sarcoma
Lymphoma
Key Points
For More Information
References
Surgical Problems of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Small Animals
Megacolon in Cats
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Key Points
For More Information
References
Gastric Dilation and Volvulus in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
References
Gastrointestinal Obstruction in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
References
Dentistry and Oral Diseases
Dental Development and Anatomy
Dental Development in Animals
Estimation of Age by Examination of the Teeth in Animals
Horses
Cattle
Dogs
Dentition and Dental Nomenclature of Animals
For More Information
Dentistry in Small Animals
Periodontal Disease in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Plaque
Calculus
Gingivitis
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Conscious Oral Examination
Occlusion
Anesthetized Oral Examination
Periodontal Probing
Furcation Exposure
Mobility
Intraoral Dental Radiography
Treatment
Professional Dental Cleaning
Periodontal Treatment
Dental Extraction
Prevention
Key Points
References
For More Information
Endodontic Disease in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
References
For More Information
Tooth Resorption in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prevention
Key Points
References
For More Information
Developmental Abnormalities of the Mouth and Dentition in Small Animals
Persistent Deciduous Teeth
Unerupted Teeth
Malformed Teeth
Malocclusion and Malformed Jaws
For More Information
Dentofacial Trauma in Small Animals
For More Information
Dental Caries in Small Animals
Dentistry in Horses
Overview of General Dentistry in Horses
Clinical Signs of Dental Disease
Dental Examination
Routine Dental Prophylaxis and Extractions
Congenital and Developmental Anomalies of the Mouth and Dentition in Horses
Abnormal Tooth Eruption in Horses
Irregular Wear of the Dentition in Horses
Periodontal Disease in Horses
Endodontic Disease in Horses
Dental Caries in Horses
Reference
For More Information
Odontoclastic Tooth Resorption and Hypercementosis in Horses
For More Information
Diseases of the Mouth in Small Animals
Overview of Diseases of the Mouth in Small Animals
For More Information
Oral Inflammatory and Ulcerative Disease in Small Animals
Feline Stomatitis
Etiology
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Juvenile-Onset Periodontitis
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Canine Chronic Ulcerative Stomatitis
Etiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Lip Fold Dermatitis and Cheilitis
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
Mycotic Stomatitis
Acute Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis
Glossitis
For More Information
References
Soft Tissue Trauma of the Mouth in Small Animals
Chewing Lesions
Mouth Burns
For More Information
Oral Papillomas in Dogs
For More Information
Oral Tumors in Small Animals
Benign Oral Tumors
Malignant Oral Tumors
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Salivary Disorders in Small Animals
Ptyalism
Salivary Mucocele (Sialocele)
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Salivary Fistulas
Salivary Gland Tumors
Sialadenitis
Sialadenosis and Necrotizing Sialometaplasia in Dogs
Xerostomia
Key Points
For More Information
References
Diseases of the Mouth in Large Animals
Lip Lacerations in Large Animals
Glossoplegia in Large Animals
Neoplasia of the Mouth in Large Animals
Slaframine Toxicosis in Large Animals
Stomatitis in Large Animals
Papular Stomatitis in Large Animals
Gastrointestinal Parasites
Amebiasis
Entamoeba histolytica
Amebiasis
Etiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Coccidiosis
Overview of Coccidiosis in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Postmortem Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control and Prevention
Key Points
For More Information
Coccidiosis of Cattle
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Postmortem Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control and Prevention
Coccidiosis of Sheep
Etiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Signs
Postmortem Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control and Prevention
Coccidiosis of Goats
Etiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Postmortem Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control and Prevention
Coccidiosis of Pigs
Etiology
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Postmortem Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention and Control
Coccidiosis of Cats and Dogs
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Postmortem Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control and Prevention
For More Information
Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis in Animals
Etiology and Epidemiology
Transmission
Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions of Cryptosporidiosis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Control
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
For More Information
References
Gastrointestinal Parasites of Horses
Overview of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Horses
For More Information
Diseases Resulting From Gastrointestinal Parasites in Horses
Ascarid-Associated Colic
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Zoonotic Risk
Strongylus vulgaris
–Associated Disease
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Zoonotic Risk
Larval Cyathostominosis
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Zoonotic Risk
Tapeworm-Associated Colic
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
For More Information
References
Gastrointestinal Parasites of Minor Clinical Importance in Horses
Gasterophilus
spp
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Zoonotic Risk
Habronema
spp
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Zoonotic Risk
Oxyuris equi
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Zoonotic Risk
Strongyloides westeri
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Zoonotic Risk
Trichostrongylus axei
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Zoonotic Risk
Key Points
For More Information
Parasite Control in Horses
Parasite Control in Horses
Resistance Status
Primary Parasite Targets
Parasite Surveillance
Climatic Considerations
Parasite Control Principles
Key Points
For More Information
Gastrointestinal Parasites of Pigs
Ascaris suum
in Pigs
Distribution and Host Range
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
For More Information
Oesophagostomum
spp in Pigs
Overview of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Pigs
Stomach Worms in Pigs
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Strongyloides
sp in Pigs
Trichuris
sp in Pigs
Macracanthorhynchus
sp in Pigs
Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ruminants
Overview of Gastrointestinal Parasites of Ruminants
Epidemiology
Features and Classification
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Qualitative Fecal Evaluation
Quantitative Fecal Evaluation
Genus- and Species-Level Determinations
Postmortem Examination
Ancillary Data
Integrated Parasite Management
Prevention
Monitoring
Treatment
Treatment of Gastrointestinal Cestodes
Treatment of Gastrointestinal Nematodes
Cattle: Special Considerations
Small Ruminants: Special Considerations
Combination Anthelmintic Treatment
Anthelmintic-related Diagnostic Techniques
Refugia
Biosecurity and Quarantine
Alternative (Nondrug) Adjunctive Options
References
For More Information
Common Gastrointestinal Parasites of Cattle
Common Parasites of the Rumen in Cattle
Paramphistomum
spp (Flukes) in Cattle
Common Parasites of the Abomasum in Cattle
Haemonchus
spp (Barber's Pole Worm, Large Stomach Worm, Wire Worm) in Cattle
Ostertagia ostertagi
(Medium or Brown Stomach Worm) in Cattle
Trichostrongylus axei
(Small Stomach Worm) in Cattle
Mecistocirrus digitatus
in Cattle
Common Parasites of the Small Intestine in cattle
Cooperia
spp (Bankrupt Worm, Small Intestinal Worm) in Cattle
Trichostrongylus
spp (Bankrupt Worms) in Cattle
Strongyloides papillosus
(Intestinal Threadworm) in Cattle
Bunostomum phlebotomum
(Hookworm) in Cattle
Nematodirus
spp (Thread-Necked Intestinal Worms) in Cattle
Toxocara vitulorum
(Roundworm) in Cattle
Moniezia
spp (Tapeworms) in Cattle
Aonchotheca
(Formerly
Capillaria
)
bovis
in Cattle
Common Parasites of the Large Intestine in Cattle
Oesophagostomum
spp (Nodular Worms) in Cattle
Chabertia ovina
(Large-Mouth Bowel Worm) in Cattle
Trichuris
spp (Whipworms) in Cattle
Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Cattle
Common Gastrointestinal Parasites of Small Ruminants
Common Parasites of the Abomasum in Small Ruminants
Haemonchus
spp (Barber's Pole Worm, Large Stomach Worm, Wire Worm) in Small Ruminants
Teladorsagia
(Formerly
Ostertagia
)
circumcincta
and
Ostertagia trifurcata
(Medium or Brown Stomach Worms) in Small Ruminants
Trichostrongylus axei
(Small Stomach Worm) in Small Ruminants
Mecistocirrus digitatus
in Small Ruminants
Common Parasites of the Small Intestine in Small Ruminants
Trichostrongylus
spp (Bankrupt Worms) in Small Ruminants
Strongyloides papillosus
(Intestinal Threadworm) in Small Ruminants
Bunostomum
spp and
Gaigeria
spp (Hookworms) in Small Ruminants
Nematodirus
spp (Thread-Necked Intestinal Worms) in Small Ruminants
Aonchotheca
(Formerly
Capillaria
)
longipes
in Small Ruminants
Moniezia
spp (Tapeworms) in Small Ruminants
Thysanosoma actinioides
(Fringed Tapeworm) in Small Ruminants
Common Parasites of the Large Intestine in Small Ruminants
Oesophagostomum columbianum
(Nodular Worm) in Small Ruminants
Chabertia ovina
(Large-Mouth Bowel Worm) in Small Ruminants
Trichuris
spp (Whipworms) in Small Ruminants
Skrjabinema
spp (Pinworms) in Small Ruminants
Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Small Ruminants
Gastrointestinal Parasites of Small Animals
Spirocerca lupi
in Small Animals
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Physaloptera
spp in Small Animals
Ollulanus
sp in Small Animals
Strongyloides
sp in Small Animals
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
Roundworms in Small Animals
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
References
Baylisascaris
in Dogs
Key Points
For More Information
Hookworms in Small Animals
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
References
Key Points
For More Information
Whipworms in Small Animals
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
For More Information
Acanthocephalans in Small Animals
Oncicola
spp
Macracanthorhynchus
sp
Tapeworms in Dogs and Cats
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Prevention
References
For More Information
Flukes in Small Animals
Intestinal Flukes
Hepatic Flukes
References
For More Information
Hepatic Disease
Liver Structure and Function
Overview of Liver Structure and Function in Animals
Anatomy of the Hepatobiliary System in Small Animals
Biliary Tree (Biliary Tract): Intrahepatic and Extrahepatic Components in Animals
Variables Influencing Bile Formation and Flow in Animals
Gallbladder, Cystic Duct, and Common Bile Duct in Animals
Interdigestive Interval
Meal-related Gallbladder Motility
Digestive Functions of Bile
Bilirubin Synthesis and Metabolism in Animals
Bilirubin Plasma Clearance
Enteric Bilirubin Metabolites
Urinary Urobilinogen
Persistent Jaundice
Pathophysiology of Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Overview of Pathophysiology of Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Clinical Features of Hepatobiliary Disease in Small Animals
Jaundice in Small Animals
Ascites in Small Animals
Hepatic Fibrosis in Small Animals
Pathological Changes in Bile in Small Animals
Syndromes Associated With Unusual Bile
Hepatic Diseases of Small Animals
Nutrition in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Energy Allowance
Dietary Protein Allowance
Modified Protein Quality/Source
Dietary Fat
Micronutrients and Vitamins
Fulminant Hepatic Failure in Small Animals
Hepatic Encephalopathy in Small Animals
Treatment
Nutritional Support
Modification of Enteric pH, Bacterial Population, Ammonia Absorption
Alternative or Salvage Interventions for Recalcitrant Hyperammonemic HE
L-ornithine-L-aspartate (LOLA) Oral Granules
Zinc Supplementation
N-acetyl-L-carnitine
Flumazenil
Elimination or Control of Factors Precipitating Hepatic Encephalopathy
Reference
Portal Hypertension and Ascites in Small Animals
Hepatic Portal Venous Hypoperfusion in Small Animals
Microvascular Dysplasia (MVD)
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Management
Portosystemic Vascular Anomalies
Clinical Signs
Imaging
Treatment
Postligation Assessment of Surgical Outcome
Postligation Imaging of PSVA Attenuation and Hepatic Portal Perfusion
Survival with PSVA Attenuation or Medical Management
Postoperative Prognosis
Medical Management
Nutritional Support
Acquired Portosystemic Shunts in Small Animals
Miscellaneous Congenital and Acquired Hepatic Vascular Disorders in Small Animals
Hepatic Arteriovenous Malformation
Hepatic Vein Outflow Obstruction
Cholangiovenous Reflux in Small Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Signs
Treatment and Prognosis
Hepatotoxins in Small Animals
Drug-associated Hepatotoxicity
Anticonvulsants
Glucocorticoids
Chemotherapy Drugs
Antiparasitic Drugs
Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs
Anesthetic Agents
Xylitol
Acetaminophen
Antifungals
Benzodiazepines
Other Drug-Associated Hepatotoxicity
Environmental or Foodborne Hepatotoxins
Aflatoxicosis
Amanita phalloides
(Death Cap Mushroom) Hepatotoxicity
Microcystin: Blue-Green Algae (cyanobacteria) Hepatotoxicity
Sago Palm, Cycad Hepatotoxicity
Biliary Cirrhosis in Small Animals
Canine Cholangiohepatitis
Clinical Signs
Imaging
Histologic Features
Suppurative Cholangitis
Destructive Cholangitis
Bacterial Cultures
Treatment
Antibiotics
Choleretics
Antioxidants
Canine Chronic Hepatitis
Chronic Hepatitis With or Without Increased Hepatic Copper in West Highland White Terriers
Idiopathic Chronic Hepatitis
Breed-specific Chronic Hepatitis
Labrador Retrievers
Doberman Pinschers
Cocker Spaniel Hepatopathy
Skye Terriers
Maltese Dog Zone 3 (Centrilobular) Hepatopathy
Lobular Dissecting Hepatitis in Small Animals
Canine Vacuolar Hepatopathy
Vacuolar Hepatopathy in Scottish Terriers
Metabolic Diseases Affecting the Liver in Small Animals
Hepatocutaneous Syndrome in Small Animals
Nodular Hyperplasia in Small Animals
Hepatic Neoplasia in Small Animals
Hepatic Lymphoma
Primary Hepatic Neoplasms
Hepatocellular Carcinomas
Hepatocellular Adenomas and Adenomatous Hyperplasia or Dysplastic Foci
Biliary Adenocarcinomas
Lymphoma
Myelolipomas
Metastatic Neoplasia
Miscellaneous Liver Diseases in Small Animals
Glycogen Storage Disease
Hepatic Amyloidosis
Cholecystitis in Small Animals
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Key Points
Emphysematous Cholecystitis/Choledochitis
Canine Gallbladder Mucocele
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Miscellaneous Disorders of the Gallbladder in Small Animals
Miscellaneous Disorders of the Bile Ducts in Small Animals
Benign Hepatic or Biliary Cysts
Ductal Plate Malformations
Choledochal Cyst
Biliary Cystadenoma
Extrahepatic Bile Duct Obstruction in Small Animals
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Cholelithiasis in Small Animals
Clinical Findings and Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Biliary Tree Rupture and Bile Peritonitis in Small Animals
Feline Cholangitis / Cholangiohepatitis Syndrome
Hepatobiliary Fluke Infection in Small Animals
References
Infectious Diseases of the Liver in Small Animals
Viral Diseases
Bacterial Diseases
Leptospirosis
Microscopic Hepatic Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Tyzzer Disease
Mycobacterium
Infections and Pyogranulomatous Hepatitis
Hepatic Impact of Extrahepatic and Intrahepatic Bacterial Infections and Sepsis
Mycotic Diseases
Systemic Mycoses
Opportunistic Uncommon Mycoses
Candida
spp
Disseminated Aspergillosis
Phaeohyphomycosis
Protothecosis
Protozoal Diseases
Toxoplasmosis
Leishmaniosis
Pyogranulomatous Hepatitis
Feline Hepatic Lipidosis
Clinical Signs
Clinicopathologic Features
Imaging
Diagnosis
Treatment
Fluids
Potassium and Phosphate Supplementation
Water-soluble Vitamins
Fat-soluble Vitamins
Additional Therapeutic Considerations
Drug Considerations
Prognosis
References
Tyzzer Disease
Tyzzer Disease in Animals
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions of Tyzzer Disease
Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
Key Points
For More Information
References
Laboratory Analyses and Imaging in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Hematology in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Red Blood Cell Effects
Poikilocytosis
Heinz Bodies
Critical Hypophosphatemia
Microcytosis
Schistocytes and Acanthocytes
Leukocytes
Thrombocytopenia
Coagulation Tests in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Clinical Assessments of Coagulation
Specific Considerations
Fibrinogen in Hepatic Disease
Thrombocytopenia and Altered Platelet Aggregation
Secondary Hemostasis Assessments
Interventional Options For Coagulation Dysregulation in Liver Disease
Blood Component Therapy
Enzyme Activity in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Aminotransferases
Alanine Aminotransferase
Aspartate Aminotransferase
Alkaline Phosphatase
Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase
Miscellaneous Serum Biochemical Measures in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Albumin
Bilirubin
Clinical Utility of Bilirubin Fractionation
Urine Bilirubin Detection
BUN and Creatinine
Glucose
Cholesterol
Urinalysis
Hepatic Function Tests in Small Animals
Total Serum Bile Acids
Ammonia
Imaging in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Radiography
Ultrasonography
Computed Tomography
Cholecystocentesis in Hepatic Disease in Small Animals
Liver Cytology in Small Animals
Liver Biopsy in Small Animals
Hepatic Disease in Large Animals
Overview of Hepatic Disease in Large Animals
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Plasma or Serum Enzymes
Total Serum Bile Acids
Serum Bile Pigments
Urobilinogen
Plasma and Serum Proteins
Clotting Times
Urea, Glucose, Ammonia, and Other Alterations
Dye Excretion and Clearance Tests
Ultrasonography
Liver Biopsy
Radiography
Scintigraphy
Treatment and Management
Hepatic Encephalopathy
Antimicrobials and Anti-inflammatories
Dietary Management
Key Points
References
For More Information
Acute Hepatitis in Large Animals
Theiler Disease
Etiology and Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Acute Hepatic Necrosis in Cattle
Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
References
Infectious Hepatitis and Hepatic Abscesses in Large Animals
Tyzzer Disease
Cholangiohepatitis
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Diagnosis
Treatment
Equine Rhinopneumonitis
Infectious Necrotic Hepatitis
Bacillary Hemoglobinuria
Hepatic Abscesses
Hepatotoxins in Large Animals
Chemical and Drug-related Causes of Toxic Hepatopathy
Iron Toxicosis
Copper Toxicosis
Miscellaneous Chemicals and Drugs Associated with Hepatotoxicosis
Mycotoxicoses
Blue-green Algae Toxicosis
Hepatotoxic Plants
Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid Toxicosis
Panicum
Grass Toxicosis
Alsike Clover Toxicosis
Mycotoxic Lupinosis
Xanthium
(Cocklebur) Toxicosis
Miscellaneous Plant Hepatotoxicoses
Cholelithiasis, Choledocholithiasis, and Hepatolithiasis in Large Animals
Etiology and Epidemiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Chronic Progressive Hepatitis in Large Animals
Etiology
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Key Points
Hyperlipemia and Hepatic Lipidosis in Large Animals
Epidemiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings
Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Key Points
Hepatic Neoplasia in Large Animals
Miscellaneous Hepatic Disorders in Large Animals
Cholangitis
Hepatic Failure in Foals
Biliary Atresia
Hemochromatosis
Right Hepatic Lobe Atrophy
Hepatic Lobe Torsion
Hepatic Amyloidosis
Congenital Hepatic Fibrosis
Primary Hyperammonemia in Adult Horses
Portosystemic Shunts
Clinical Findings and Lesions
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hyperammonemia in Morgan Foals
References
Hyperbilirubinemia Syndromes in Large Animals
Gilbert Syndrome
Dubin-Johnson Syndrome
Liver Abscesses in Cattle
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Clinical Findings, Lesions, and Diagnosis
Treatment and Control
References
For More Information
